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Photovoltaic Solar Energy Generation

By: Goetzberger, A.
Contributor(s): Hoffmann, V.U.
Material type: materialTypeLabelBookPublisher: Germany Springer 2010Description: 232.ISBN: 978-3-642-06260-5.Subject(s): ElectricalDDC classification: 621.31244
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Reference 621.31244 GOE (Browse shelf) Not For Loan 014569

This comprehensive description and discussion of photovoltaics (PV) is presented at a level that makes it accessible to the interested academic. Starting with an historical overview, the text outlines the relevance of photovoltaics today and in the future. Then follows an introduction to the physical background of solar cells and the most important materials and technologies, with particular emphasis placed on future developments and prospects. The book goes beyond technology by also describing the path from the cell to the module to the system, proceeding to important applications, such as grid-connected and stand-alone systems. The composition and development of the markets and the role of PV in future energy systems are also considered. Finally, the discussion turns to the future structure of energy supplies, expected to comprise more distributed generation, and addresses synergies and competition from other carbon-free energy sources

Contents
1 What Is Photovoltaics? ................................... 1
1.1 What Is Photovoltaics? ................................ 1
1.2 Short History of Photovoltaics .......................... 2
1.2.1 Technology .................................... 2
1.2.2 Applications ................................... 5
1.3 Relevance of PV, Now and in the Future ................. 6
1.4 Markets, Economics ................................... 8
2 Physics of Solar Cells ..................................... 11
2.1 Basic Mechanisms of Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 The Silicon Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Silicon Solar Cell Material and Technology ............... 23
3.1 Silicon Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 Monocrystalline and Multicrystalline Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.1 Technology of Czochralski
and Float Zone Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.2 The Silicon Supply Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Ribbon Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.2 The Main Approaches
in Ribbon Silicon Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Silicon Cell Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.1 Production of pn and pp+ Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.2 Oxidation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4.3 Electrical Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4.4 Antireflection Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4.5 Status Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5 Advanced Si-Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5.1 High Efficiency Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5.2 Bifacial Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.3 Buried Contact Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.4 Interdigitated Back Contact Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.5 OECO Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.5.6 a-Si/c-Si Heterostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.7 Rear Side Contacted Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5.8 Laser-Fired Contact Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4 Crystalline Thin-Film Silicon ............................. 43
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 The Basic Components
of a Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 The Present Status
of the Crystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.1 Si Layers Deposited Directly onto Glass . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.2 Si Layers on High-Temperature
Resistant Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.3 Transfer Technologies of Monocrystalline
Thin Si Films onto Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5 Other Materials, New Concepts,
and Future Developments ................................. 57
5.1 Theoretical Efficiencies and Requirements
for Solar Cell Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Thin-Film Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.1 Amorphous Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.2 Copper Indium Diselenide
and Related Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.3 Cadmium Telluride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Other Materials and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.1 Tandem Cells, Concentrating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3.2 Dye-Sensitized Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.3 Organic Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4 Theoretical Concepts for New High Efficiency
Semiconductor Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.1 Auger Generation Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.2 Intermediate Metallic Band Material
and Up and Down Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5 Past and Future Development of Solar Cell Efficiency . . . . . . 81
6 Solar Cells and Solar Modules ............................ 85
6.1 Characteristic Curves and Characteristics of Solar Cells . . . . 85
6.1.1 Characteristic Curves of Solar Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.1.2 Characteristics of Solar Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.2 Module Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7 PV Systems .............................................. 95
7.1 Stand-Alone PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.1.1 Consumer Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.1.2 Solar Home Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.1.3 Residential Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.1.4 Hybrid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.1.5 Photovoltaic Water Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2 Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.1 Decentralized Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . . 107
7.2.2 Central Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2.3 Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8 PV Systems: Installation Possibilities ..................... 113
8.1 Geometrical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 PV Systems in Connection with Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.2.1 Advantages and Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.2.2 Installation on the Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.2.3 Roof-Integrated Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.2.4 Facade-Integrated Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3 PV Sound Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.4 Solar Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.4.1 Examples of Large PV Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.4.2 PV and Plant Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.5 Sun-Tracked and Concentrating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.5.1 Sun-Tracked Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.5.2 Concentrating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9 Environmental Impacts by PV Systems ................... 137
9.1 Environmental Impacts Due to Manufacturing
of PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.2 Environmental Impacts from Operation of PV Systems. . . . . 137
9.3 Energy Payback Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.4 Land Area Required by PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5 Recycling of PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.5.1 Recycling of Crystalline Silicon PV Modules . . . . . . . 141
9.5.2 Recycling of Amorphous Silicon PV Modules . . . . . . 144
9.5.3 Recycling of Compound Semiconductor
Thin-Film PV Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.5.4 Energy Demand for Recycling of PV Modules . . . . . . 146
10 Efficiency and Performance of PV Systems ............... 147
10.1 Stand-Alone PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.2 Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.2.1 Final Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.2.2 Performance Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.2.3 Possibilities of Quality Control and Control
of Energy Yield of Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . 153
10.3 Long-Term Behavior of Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . 155
10.3.1 Solar Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.3.2 Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.3.3 Mounting Racks and Fixing Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.3.4 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.4 Electric Safety of Grid-Connected PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11 PV Markets Support Measures and Costs ................ 163
11.1 Market Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.2 Influences on the PV Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
11.2.1 Demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.2.2 General Investment Subsidy Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.2.3 Sponsoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.2.4 Low Interest Loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.2.5 Tax Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.2.6 Rate-Based Incentives or Feed-In Tariffs. . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.2.7 Green Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.2.8 Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.2.9 Solar Power Stock Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.2.10 Cooperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.2.11 Green “Utility” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.2.12 Tendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.2.13 Renewable Obligation Order
or Renewable Portfolio Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.2.14 Installation on Leased Roof Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.2.15 Political Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
11.2.16 Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
11.2.17 Evaluation of Market Support Measures . . . . . . . . . . . 178
11.3 Cost of Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.3.1 Cost of PV Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.3.2 Cost of PV Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.3.3 Cost of Power Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12 The Future of PV ........................................ 187
12.1 Boundary Conditions for the Future Development
of Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.1.1 Cost Development of Conventional Electricity . . . . . . 187
12.1.2 Effects of Liberalization
and Environmental Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.2 Cost and Market Development of Stand-Alone
and Grid-Connected Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
12.3 PV in a Future Liberalized
and Partly Decentralized Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.3.1 Integration of PV
into a Decentralized Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.3.2 Fully Autonomous Systems,
Autonomous House Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
12.4 PV in a Centralized Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.4.1 Electricity from the Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12.4.2 Electricity from Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
13 Other (Perhaps Competing) CO2-Free Energy Sources .... 195
13.1 Other Renewable Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.1.1 Solar Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.1.2 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
13.1.3 Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
13.1.4 Biomass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
13.1.5 Ocean and Wave Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
13.1.6 Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13.2 Carbon-Free Combustion of Fossil Fuels:
Carbon Sequestration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
13.2.1 What Is Carbon Sequestration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
13.2.2 CO2 Capture and Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14 Popular Killing Arguments Against PV
and Why They Are Not Valid ............................ 215
14.1 Solar Modules Consume More Energy
for Their Production Than They Ever Generate . . . . . . . . . . . 215
14.2 PV Produces More Greenhouse Gases Than It Saves . . . . . . . 216
14.3 Grid-Connected PV Requires Lots
of Back-Up Fossil Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
14.4 PV Is Too Expensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
14.5 PV Is Not Ready for Marketing, More Research
Is Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
14.6 Installation of PV in the Northern Half of Europe Does
Not Make Sense Because the Same Solar Cells Generate
Electricity Much Cheaper in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
14.7 PV Involves Toxic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
14.8 PV Consumes Valuable Land Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
14.9 PV Competes for Roof Space with Thermal Collectors . . . . . 219
14.10 A Feed-in Tariff Causes Unacceptably High
Electricity Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References .................................................... 221
Index ......................................................... 229

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